jimtrue.com : school : PSY1012 : Chapter Eight: Learning

Posted by Jim True on March 13, 2006 5:14 PM. Last Updated October 22, 2006 9:23 PM

Disclaimer for all material noted here is at the bottom of this web page.

Chapter Eight: Learning

• Learning - Relatively permanent change in an organism's behavior due to experience (also known in the psychological realm as 'conditioning')
• Classical or Pavlovian Conditioning - we learn to associate two stimuli. ie lightning + thunder, thus you might wince when we see the lightning, anticipating the thunder
• Operant conditioning - we learn to associate a response and it's consequence, ie pushing a vending machine button (response), receiving a candy bar (consequence), behavior strengthened. Reinforcing a behavior due to positive or negative consequences.

Classical Conditioning

• Ivan Pavlov
• 1849-1936
• russian physician/neurophysiologist
• Nobel Prive in 1904
• studied digestive systems
• Before conditioning, before the condition takes affect the stimulus must be NEUTRAL and there must be the (UCS -> neutral stimulus)
• Classical Conditioning
• organism comes to associate two stimuli
• a neutral stimulus that signals an unconditioned stimulus begins to produce a response that anticipates and prepares for the unconditioned stimulus
• Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS) - Stimulus that unconditionally -- automatically and naturally -- triggers a response
• Unconditioned Response (UCR)
• unlearned, naturally occurring response to unconditioned stimulus
• Salivation when food is in the mouth
• Conditioned Stimulus (CS) - originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus, comes to trigger a conditioned response
• Conditioned Response (CR) - learned response to a previously neutral conditioned stimulus
• Example: UCS (passionate kiss) -> UCR (sensual arousal); CS (Onion Breath) + UCS (passionate kiss) -> UCR (sensual arousal), this then creates the classical conditining of CS (Onion Breath) => CR (sensual arousal).
• Extinction
• diminishing of a CR
• in classical conditioning, when a UCS does not follow a CS
• in operant conditioning, when a response is no longer reinforced
• Spontaneous Recovery - reappearance, after a rest period, of an extinguised CR
• Generalization - tendency for stimuli similar to CS to elicit similar responses; if you're afraid of one thing, things that are similar can elicit the same response
• Discrimination - in classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a CS and other stimuli that do not signal a UCS
• UCS -> UCR; CS + UCS -> UCR; CS -> CR. Example: classical conditoining used to try to treat alcoholism (anabuse which causes vomiting when drinking alcohol). Doesn't always work because 'cognition', thinking about what's causing the vomiting (the drug)

Operant Conditioning

• Operant Conditioning - type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by reinforcement or diminished if followed by punishment.
• Law of Effect - Thorndike's principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely
• Called Operant because you're actually operating on the environment
• Operant Behavior
• operates (acts) on environment
• produces consequences
• Respondent Behavior
• occurs as an automatic response to stimulus
• behavior learned through classical conditioning
• B.F. Skinner (1904 - 1990)
• elaborated thorndike's Law of Effect
• developed behavioral technology
• The Skinner Box (pg. 323)
• Reinforcer - any event that strengthens the behavior it follows; it also has to be rewarding to that particular subject.
• Shaping - operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer approximations of a desired goal. Have to 'train' them into the response and as their behavior gets close to the reponse, you reward them.
• Table 8.1 - Ways to increase behavior

Operatant Conditioning Term	Description	Example
Positive Reinforcement	ADD a positive stimulus	a hug, TV on
Negative Reinforcement	REMOVE an aversive stimulus	Seat belt turns off buzzer

• Principles of Reinforcement
• Primary Reinforcer - innately reinforcing stimulus; ie satisfies a biological need, ie food
• Conditioned Reinforcer - stimulus that gains it reinforcing power through its association with primary reinforcer; secondary reinforcer, ie paycheck allows you to get food
• Schedules of Reinforcement
• Continuous Reinforcement - reinforcing the desired response each time it occurs
• Partial (intermittent) Reinforcement
• reinforcing a response only part of the time
• results in slower acquisition
• greater resistance to extinction
• Fixed Ratio (FR)
• reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses
• faster you reponsd the more rewards you get
• different
• Variable Ratio (VR)
• reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses
• average ratios
• like gambling, fishing
• very hard to extinguish because of unpredictability
• Fixed Interval (FI)
• reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed
• response occurs more frequently as the anticipated time for reward draws near
• Variable Interval (VI)
• reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals
• produces slow steady responding
• like pop quiz

Punishment

• Punishment
• aversive event that decreases the behavior that follows
• powerful controller of unwanted behavior
• Table from 8.2 Types of Punishers

Type	Description	Examples
Positive Punishment	Administer an aversive stimulus	Spanking; a parking ticket
Negative Punishment	Withdraw a desirable stimulus	Time-out frompriveleges such as TV, revoed driver's license

Positive punishment can have negative consequences, child can see that when you're angry you hit. Unwanted effects of agression & fear. Parents also often forget to tell the child what they're being punished for, and what they can do to act properly.

• Comparison of Operant vs Classical Conditioning (Table 8.2

	Classical Conditioning	Operant Conditioning
Response	Involuntary, automatic	"Voluntary", operates on environment
Acquisition	Associating events; CS announces UCS	Associating response with a consequence (reinforcer or punishment)
Extinction	CR decreases when CS is rpeatedly presented alone	Responding decreases when reinforcement stops
Cognitive Processes	Subjects develop expectation that CS signals the arrival of US	Subjects develop expectation that a response will be reinforced or punished; they also exhibit latent learning, without reinforcement
Biological predisposition	Natural predispositions constrain what stimuli and responses can easily be associated	Organisms best learn behaviors similar to their natural behaviors; unnatural behaviors instinctively drift back toward natural ones

Observational Learning

• Observational Learning - learning by observing others
• Modeling - Process of observing and imitating a specific behavior

“Careful the things you say, children will listen, careful the things you do, children will see ... and learn” (Stephen Sondheim)

• Prosocial Behavior
• positive, constructive, helpful behavior
• opposite of antisocial behavior
• Mirror Neurons
• frontal lobe neurons that fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so
• may enable imitation, language learning, and empathy

Disclaimer: These are MY notes taken from classroom lectures while I'm in the classroom. While I'm perfectly happy to share my notes with my classmates and I know I take very good notes, you should still make every effort to attend the class and TAKE YOUR OWN NOTES. I will not transcribe everything the instructor says in the classroom, and I will NEVER post pre-exam reviews. My notes will not replace the value of actually attending class and taking your own class notes.I also cannot attest to their accuracy, other than they are what was provided in the lecture; you should not reference my notes as "expert opionion" by any means, and if you notice an error or omission, please do me the favor of e-mailing me with the correction and I will re-post my notes. End of Disclaimer.